Item analysis is one of the most important elements of test construction. Statistical techniques can be used to carefully examine how a test item functions. This analysis can reveal how easy or difficult an item is and how well the item discriminates between test-takers. Item analysis can also reveal whether an item functions similarly when administered to different populations or when it is translated into another language. Classical test theory (CTT) and item-response theory (IRT) are the two commonly used methods of assessing test item characteristics.

Classical test theory focuses on an individuals observed score of an entire instrument, not just individual items. It assumes that test scores have two major influences: consistency factors and inconsistency factors. In other words, there are characteristics of the test taker that are consistent and reflect the amount of whatever is being measured that is possessed by the individual. The inconsistency factors are those error factors from the individual or environment that have nothing to do with what is actually being measured. According to CTT then, a persons observed score is the true score plus or minus error from these inconsistencies.

Item-response theory, on the other hand, is a set of models that establishes a persons location on a latent variable using the observed data from a test item. This means that according to IRT, item responses on tests are explained by latent traits, or a trait that is presumed to exist in some quantity but cannot be directly assessed (e.g., intelligence or anxiety). Once you know where a person is on a latent variable scale (for instance, high anxiety or low anxiety), you can compare test takers to each other by seeing where each is on the continuum. According to IRT, each test item has an associated function, showing the probability that an individual with a certain quantity of the latent trait will pass the item.

When a new test is developed, test developers typically begin by creating more items than are needed. Item analysis techniques such as CTT and IRT are then used to diagnose items, and bad ones are discarded. IRT techniques can also be used to develop item banks. Items that function similarly can be used interchangeably, and computerized test administration can present a test tailored to the examinees ability level.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post   

1. For IRT (Item Response Theory)
   1. Explain its advantages and disadvantages
   2. Explain two SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES where IRT might be useful for the test you are developing for the final project
2. For CTT (Classical Test Theory)
   1. Explain its advantages and disadvantages
   2. Explain two SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES where CTT might be useful for the test you are developing for the final project
3. Support your reply with at least four (4) academic citations, drawing some from the readings.

Example Child Development Memes

Below are some examples of Child Development Memes. These memes have been collected from various sites but are here to just give you an example of what you can do. Students MAY NOT use memes that have already been created. Students MUST use an original photo or drawing to create their meme. 

Below is a thought-provoking meme that is promoting the acceptance of boys playing with dolls. 

Below is a thought-provoking & humorous meme that is promoting parents modeling reading as a way to facilitate children to read. 

Below is a thought-provoking meme that is promoting the ideal that there is pressure for men (not just women) to conform to unrealistic body standards. 

Below is humorous meme that is using Piaget’s concept of Object Permanence. 

Below is a humorous meme that is promoting the normalcy of separation anxiety/stranger danger in toddlerhood. 

Below is a thought-provoking and humorous meme that is advocating that taking prescription medication for mental health should not be stigmatized. 

 Criteria 

ploaded MemeMeme is uploaded. Meme is easily readable and simple to understand.

8.0 to >4.0 ptsFull Marks

4.0 to >0.0 ptsNeeds Work
Meme needs more visual work or the wording is not understandable. There are errors in spelling or grammar in meme text.
0.0 ptsNo Marks
8.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeQuestion #1How did you create your meme? What program/software/app did you use? How long did it take you?

If it is a photo, when did you take it?

If it is a drawing/illustration, what materials did you use to create it?

1.0 ptsFull Marks

0.0 ptsNo Marks
1.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeQuestion #2What emotion or thought do you want the reader to engage in while reading/examining your meme?

1.0 ptsFull Marks

0.0 ptsNo Marks
1.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeQuestion #3Thoroughly explain the concept or theory that your meme connects to.

8.0 to >4.0 ptsFull Marks

4.0 to >0.0 ptsMore Detail is Needed
The description of the theory/concept is not clear or it needs more explanation. Paraphrasing is either not used or is too vague. Textbook or other source citations are not provided.
0.0 ptsNo Marks
8.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeQuestion #4How does your meme promote healthy child development?

2.0 to >0.0 ptsFull Marks

0.0 ptsNo Marks
2.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeSpelling, Grammar, & FormatThere are no spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors in both the meme & responses. There is clear organization.

2.0 ptsFull Marks
There are NO errors in spelling, grammar, or format.
1.0 ptsNeeds Work
There are errors in spelling, grammar, or format.
0.0 ptsNo Marks
There are NUMEROUS errors in spelling, grammar, or format.2.0 pts
Total Points: 22.0

It is not uncommon to encounter leaders who are dysfunctional in some way. Leader dysfunction may arise from specific personality traits, distorted thinking, destructive patterns of behavior, or all of the above. In some cases, coaching is an appropriate response to leader dysfunction; in other cases, referring the leader to a therapist is best. Coaches must know when to draw the line.

In this Discussion, you will consider different types of leader dysfunction, the causes of the dysfunctions, and whether coaching is an appropriate response.

To Prepare:

• Read the articles The Dark Triad and Workplace Behavior, Abusive Supervision, Coaching the Toxic Leader, and Leadership Illusions: Important Implications for Leaders and Training and Coaching Leaders. Think about different types of leadership dysfunction, how to identify the dysfunction, and how it manifests within an organizational context.
• View the media resource, Assessing Readiness for Coaching. Consider examples of when coaching is not an appropriate solution.
• Identify a leadership dysfunction of interest to you. Consider the causes of the dysfunction and whether coaching is an appropriate intervention.

By Day 3

 Briefly describe the leadership dysfunction you selected. Explain the possible causes of the leadership dysfunction and the negative effects on individuals, teams, and organizations. Finally, explain the degree to which the dysfunction could be successfully addressed through coaching and why or why not. Be specific.  

I need a 6 page paper, APA format for Ursula from “The Little Mermaid”.  One of her psychological disorders is a sociopath.  I need a brief background on Ursula, description of her diagnosis and why she is diagnosed, and then come up with a treatment plan.  

References are a MUST for creating a treatment plan and explaining what led to the reasoning for the diagnosis.

For this Discussion, review this weeks Learning Resources including Appendices 1215 of the 2010 USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Also review the Nutrition, Stress, and Your Cells handout and the Stress and Its Impact on Nutrient Processing and Absorption handout. Then, research nutritional approaches to stress management and select two that might be effective. Finally, consider any contraindications or cautions that might result in applying the approaches you selected.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post by Day 4 a brief description of two nutritional approaches you selected for stress management. Then explain why these approaches might be effective. Finally, explain any contraindications or cautions to using these two approaches and explain why. Be specific.

Readings

• Course Text: OConner, D. B., & Conner, M. (2011). Effects of stress on eating behavior. In R. J. Contrada & A. Baum (Eds.), The handbook of stress science: Biology, psychology, and health (pp. 275286). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
• Article: American Cancer Society. (2012). Complementary and alternative methods for cancer management. Retrieved from
• Article: Cancer Research UK. (2011). The difference between complementary and alternative therapies. Retrieved from
• Article: Ferguson, J. K., Willemsen, E. W., & Castaeto, M. V. (2010). Centering  prayer as a healing response to everyday stress: A psychological and spiritual process. Pastoral Psychology, 59(3), 305329.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the Academic Search Complete database.
• Article: Kelley, D. (2009). The effects of exercise and diet on stress. Nutritional Perspectives: Journal of the Council on Nutrition, 32(1), 3739.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the CINAHL Plus with Full Text database.
• Article: Mora-Ripoll, R. (2011). Potential health benefits of simulated laughter: A narrative review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 19, 170177.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the ScienceDirect Health Sciences Subject Collection.
• Article: Romeo, J., Wrnberg, J., Gmez-Martnez, S., Daz, L. E., & Marcos, A. (2008). Neuroimmunomodulation by nutrition in stress situations. Neuroimmunomodulation, 15(3), 165169.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the MEDLINE with Full Text database.
• Article: Seifried, H. E. (2006). Oxidative stress and antioxidants: A link to disease and prevention? The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 18(3), 168171.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the ScienceDirect Health Sciences Subject Collection.
• Booklet: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (2012). Herbs at a glance.Retrieved from  
• Booklet: U.S. Department of Agriculture, & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010 (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Website: Office of Dietary Supplements. (n.d.). Retrieved from
• Website: Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2012). Retrieved from
• Website: National Council on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved from  
• Website: Nutrition.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved from  
• Web Resource: National Center on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (2012). Herbs at a glance. Retrieved from

For this Discussion, review this weeks Learning Resources including the Varying Philosophies of Medical Care handout. Research complementary and alternative stress management approaches in the Walden Library and on the website for the National Institutes of Healths National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) (). Select a complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) discussed at NCCAM. Consider how the CAM you selected might effectively reduce stress. Reflect on any contraindications that might exist with regard to its use.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post by Day 3 a brief description of the complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) you selected. Then, explain how this CAM is effective in reducing stress. Finally, explain any contraindications or cautions with this type of stress management strategy. Use the current literature to support your response.

Readings

• Course Text: OConner, D. B., & Conner, M. (2011). Effects of stress on eating behavior. In R. J. Contrada & A. Baum (Eds.), The handbook of stress science: Biology, psychology, and health (pp. 275286). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
• Article: American Cancer Society. (2012). Complementary and alternative methods for cancer management. Retrieved from
• Article: Cancer Research UK. (2011). The difference between complementary and alternative therapies. Retrieved from
• Article: Ferguson, J. K., Willemsen, E. W., & Castaeto, M. V. (2010). Centering  prayer as a healing response to everyday stress: A psychological and spiritual process. Pastoral Psychology, 59(3), 305329.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the Academic Search Complete database.
• Article: Kelley, D. (2009). The effects of exercise and diet on stress. Nutritional Perspectives: Journal of the Council on Nutrition, 32(1), 3739.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the CINAHL Plus with Full Text database.
• Article: Mora-Ripoll, R. (2011). Potential health benefits of simulated laughter: A narrative review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 19, 170177.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the ScienceDirect Health Sciences Subject Collection.
• Article: Romeo, J., Wrnberg, J., Gmez-Martnez, S., Daz, L. E., & Marcos, A. (2008). Neuroimmunomodulation by nutrition in stress situations. Neuroimmunomodulation, 15(3), 165169.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the MEDLINE with Full Text database.
• Article: Seifried, H. E. (2006). Oxidative stress and antioxidants: A link to disease and prevention? The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 18(3), 168171.
  Retrieved from the Walden Library using the ScienceDirect Health Sciences Subject Collection.
• Booklet: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (2012). Herbs at a glance.Retrieved from  
• Booklet: U.S. Department of Agriculture, & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010 (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Handout: Laureate Education, Inc. (2012). . Unpublished document.
• Website: Office of Dietary Supplements. (n.d.). Retrieved from
• Website: Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2012). Retrieved from
• Website: National Council on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved from  
• Website: Nutrition.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved from  
• Web Resource: National Center on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (2012). Herbs at a glance. Retrieved from

To prepare for this Discussion:

Review Chapter 8 in the course text, Psychology and Policing. Think about likely police professional reactions to stress.

Review the article, “The Relation Between Mindfulness and Posttraumatic Growth: A Study of First Responders to Trauma-Inducing Incidents.” Consider the potential police reactions to trauma-inducing incidents.

Review the article, “Police Trauma and Addiction,” and consider the connection between stress and addiction.

Review the article, “After Facing Traumatic Stress: Brain Activation, Cognition and Stress Coping in Policemen.” Consider the possible reactions to stress that police professionals could have and why.

Review the article, “Predictors of Police Suicide Ideation,” and think about the possible negative reactions to stress that police professionals could experience.

Select two possible reactions to, or outcomes of, stress that police professionals could experience throughout their professional lifespan. Think about which outcome or response is more likely and consider why.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post by Day 4 a description of two potential police professional reactions to, or outcomes of, stress. Analyze and explain which reaction or outcome you believe is more likely, and justify your responses with references to the Learning Resources.

Learning Resources

Readings

• Course Text: Psychology and Policing
  • Chapter 8, “Stress and Policing”
• Article: Chopko, B. A., & Schwartz, R. C. (2009). The relation between mindfulness and posttraumatic growth: A study of first responders to trauma-inducing incidents. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 31(4), 363376. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Cross, C. L., & Ashley, L. (2004). Police trauma and addiction. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 73(10), 2432. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Hennig-Fast, K., Werner, N. S., Lermer, R., Latscha, K., Meister, F., Reiser, M., … Meindl, T. (2009). After facing traumatic stress: Brain activation, cognition and stress coping in policemen. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(14), 11461155. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Regehr, C., LeBlanc, V., Blake Jelley, R., & Barath, I. (2008). Acute stress and performance in police recruits. Stress and Health, 24(4), 295303. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Violanti, J. M. (2004). Predictors of police suicide ideation. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 34(3), 277283. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

To prepare for this Discussion:

Review Chapter 8 from your course text, Psychology and Policing. Think about the various stressors police professionals encounter and consider their impact. Focus on interventions (e.g., services, consultations, assistance) that forensic psychology professionals could use to mitigate these stressors.

Review the article, “Acute Stress and Performance in Police Recruits.” Consider interventions that forensic psychology professionals could provide police professionals early in their careers to reduce psychological risk.

Review the interactive time line depicting the lifespan of Officer Richard Walker, and consider the psychological risks that are present throughout his lifespan. Think about the points in this lifespan when interventions by forensic psychology professionals could make a difference or impact the outcome of Walker’s reaction to psychological risks.

Select two points of time in Officer Walker’s lifespan when psychological risks are present or possible. Consider the interventions that forensic psychology professionals could use that would impact the outcomes of these stressors and produce a result different from what transpired in the lifespan time line.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post by Day 3 a brief description of the two points in Officer Walker’s lifespan when he may be vulnerable to psychological risk. Analyze and explain why you think these points are risks. Then, analyze the interventions that forensic psychology professionals could use to make a difference in the outcome of Walker’s reactions to these stressors and what these differences could be. Support your analysis with references to the Learning Resources.

Learning Resources

Readings

• Course Text: Psychology and Policing
  • Chapter 8, “Stress and Policing”
• Article: Chopko, B. A., & Schwartz, R. C. (2009). The relation between mindfulness and posttraumatic growth: A study of first responders to trauma-inducing incidents. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 31(4), 363376. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Cross, C. L., & Ashley, L. (2004). Police trauma and addiction. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 73(10), 2432. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Hennig-Fast, K., Werner, N. S., Lermer, R., Latscha, K., Meister, F., Reiser, M., … Meindl, T. (2009). After facing traumatic stress: Brain activation, cognition and stress coping in policemen. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(14), 11461155. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Regehr, C., LeBlanc, V., Blake Jelley, R., & Barath, I. (2008). Acute stress and performance in police recruits. Stress and Health, 24(4), 295303. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
• Article: Violanti, J. M. (2004). Predictors of police suicide ideation. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 34(3), 277283. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

Giving your input. Each student will be required to participate in the discussion topics.  Consider issue and give well-reasoned responses as your present and respond to the posts of others.

Students are required to make an initial post to EACH of the discussion topics within the first two weeks of the beginning of the course. (Jan 30) 

You are required to make a minimum of four posts to each discussion topic.

1.  Make an initial post (100 word minimum)  to EACH of the four discussion topics within the first two weeks of the beginning of the course.

2.  Students are required to make at least three reflective posts (100 word minimum) to the comments of other students.   

Students must begin by first stating I believe your main (basic)point was.  You may then proceed to discuss your viewpoint and advance or clarify you contribution to the discussion topic.

3.  For a post to be considered significant it must be a minumum of 100 words.

OTHER issue for consideration for your discussion participation

You must be active with a significant post (100 word minimum)  on at least  8  Different days.  

You cannot make all posts for the class on one day. Be a participant and active.

There is an assigned discussion topic for each module.  Comments need to be relevant and reflect a true attempt to address the issues.

You may choose to incorporate your text readings in your discussion.  (you are not required to reference the online text.  you can quote your best friend,  your grandma.  This is a reflective.. but respectful experience)

I will be sending relevant e-mail throughout the semester.   Involvement affects your grade. (hint) Stay active and relevant.

Students may not simply agree ( or repeat) but advance (build upon) or further the discussion

Review the discussion threads thoroughly before entering the discussion. Be a lurker then a discussant.Try to maintain threads by using the “Reply” button rather starting a new topic.

Do not make insulting or inflammatory statements to other members of the discussion group. Be respectful of others’ ideas.Be patient and read the comments of other group members thoroughly before entering your remarks.

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What are the lessons learned? 

How do you determine what research to believe?

Your thoughts on the issue?

Your perspective on what is the cause of infidelity.

Do you believe biology has a role in how we address issues of relationship.

Do you believe studies on the brain can address the “basic” issues of human motivation.

KEY TOPICS:  Biology and behavior.

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